Beautiful Benefits of Biodiversity Part I: Forests
- Dr. Dave Augeri
- Feb 14
- 17 min read
Updated: Mar 10

Biodiversity is the fabric and engine of Life. Forest biodiversity is essential for a healthy and stable climate, fully functioning and healthy ecosystems, resilience against stochastic events, and fundamental to the existence, security and well-being of all life on Earth, including for each one of us and our economic, social, governing, food, industrial and other systems in society.
(Excerpts from Augeri, 2025)
© Dave Augeri, Ph.D.
“Look closely at nature. Every species is a masterpiece, exquisitely adapted to the particular environment in which it has survived. Who are we to destroy or even diminish biodiversity?” (Wilson, 2017)
Biodiversity is both the fabric and engine of life. The millions of species and their roles are what make life possible on Earth. They provide the essential services, processes, products and other resources that we entirely depend on, not only for our livelihoods and economies, but for our very existence. They are vital for the proper functioning of both natural and human systems, including crucial life sustaining services that support all people, economies, societies, cultures, governments, and nations around the world. Their products and services range from creating the oxygen we breathe and clean water we drink to a broad variety of foods, fibers, protein, medicines, raw materials, genetic and natural resources, pollination, nutrient cycling, CO2 sequestration, and the production of biomass, soils, and other essential needs, to mention a mere fraction of what is incalculable (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Diversity in this biological array is what makes all of this is possible. Consequently, the relative condition of biodiversity is a barometer of the health of the biosphere and, therefore, our own wellbeing and that of our society.
Parts I and II of this blog series on biodiversity briefly summarize the benefits from what most scientists consider the two most biodiverse and endangered ecosystems on Earth: native tropical forests and coral reefs. Part III is focused on the critical life support services we receive from ecosystems. All three are crucial for the survival of each one of us, our society, the biosphere and all life on Earth.
Forests

Approximately 29% of the Earth’s surface is land and 71% of that area is considered habitable for humans. The remaining 29% of land is covered by deserts, dry salt flats, sand dunes, glaciers, and extreme elevations, etc. that are inhospitable for humans. As of 2020, forests covered approximately 31% of the Earth’s land area and the most recent reports indicate these figures hadn’t substantively changed by 2024 (FAO, 2020; 2024; Global Forest Watch 2024). This is largely due to deforestation in some regions and forest regeneration in others. Two-thirds (66%) of the world’s forests are in only 10 countries, with just five hosting more than half (53.8%) of the forests on Earth: Russian Federation (20.1%), Brazil (12.2%), Canada (8.5%), USA (7.6%), and China (5.4%) (FAO 2020, 2024; FAO & UNEP, 2020). Although the Democratic Republic of Congo and Indonesia hold the second and third most extensive tropical forests in the world behind Brazil, they comprise only 3.1% and 2.3% respectively of the world’s total forested area (FAO, 2020, 2024).

Only about half of the world’s forests are “relatively intact” today and less than one-third (approx. 27%) are primary forest (FAO, 2020, 2024; FAO & UNEP, 2020; Global Forest Watch 2024). Technically, primary forests are fully intact native forests characterized by their majority having reached mature ecological stages (a.k.a. ‘old growth’) that have been undisturbed and naturally evolving for hundreds of years to hundreds of millions of years. In fact, the 1,200 km2 (460 mi2) Daintree Rainforest in the wet tropics of Queensland, Australia is the oldest living forest on Earth, estimated to be at least 180 million years old and tens of millions of years older than the Amazon. However, FAO and UNEP (2020) define primary forests as: “naturally regenerated forests of native species, where there are no visible indications of human activities and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed” (FAO & UNEP, 2020). This definition is not quite accurate, though, because by this characterization it could also include newly regenerating forests that may still be in very young stages (even just saplings) that have not been disturbed to that point of assessment.
Before continuing, we need to make a very important distinction between natural forests versus tree plantations, agroforestry projects, and the like. As defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), timber, pulp and paper, oil palm and similar plantations that industries claim are “forests” are highly cleared with virtually no understory plants and “are intensively managed, composed of one or two species, even-aged, planted with regular spacing, and established mainly for productive purposes” (FAO, 2020). These are not forests. They do not possess the ecological, biological, biophysical or biochemical properties of natural forests, whether the plantations or agroforestry projects are for timber, rubber, oil palm, fruit, pulp and paper, or otherwise (Altamirano et al., 2020; Augeri, 2005; 2022; Cai et al., 2019; Dislich et al., 2017; FAO & UNEP, 2020; Liao et al., 2010, 2012; Meijaard et al., 2005; Osuri et al., 2020; Ray et al., 2015; Waring et al., 2020; WWF, 2022, 2024). This is also regardless of whether they are a monoculture of a single tree species or, as is sometimes the case, comprised of 3-5+- commercial species for timber, fruit or other products (Kelty, 2006; Liu et al., 2018).

These unnatural sites also do not possess the necessary traits to provide the same quantity and quality of critical ecosystem services that natural forests deliver and are essential for life on Earth (Altamirano et al., 2020; Augeri, 2005; 2022; Cai et al., 2019; Dislich et al., 2017; FAO & UNEP, 2020; IPBES, 2019; Kelty, 2006; Lewis et al., 2019; Liao et al., 2010, 2012; Osuri et al., 2020; Ray et al., 2015; WWF, 2022, 2024). This would include many of the services noted above, including sufficient carbon sequestration, for which plantations are far less adequate due to their monoculture characteristics, highly cleared understory, and denuded soils (Cai et al., 2019; Dislich et al., 2017; Lewis et al., 2019; Liao et al., 2010, 2012; Osuri et al., 2020). In fact, monocultural plantations are nearly ‘sterile’ in above- and below-ground biodiversity and cause more harm to the environment than benefits (IPBES-IPCC 2021; Jordan 2020; Lewis et al., 2019).
In contrast, volumes of robust scientific research reveal nearly endless benefits that natural forests provide for the biosphere and humanity. In brief, pristine (i.e., primary) native forests of any type are essential for life on Earth. It is estimated that more than half of the terrestrial species on Earth live in native forests (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005) and the tropical forest biome has the highest proportion of terrestrial biodiversity at 45%, followed by boreal forests (27%), temperate forests (16%) and subtropical forests (11%) (FAO, 2020; FAO & UNEP, 2020). Although tropical forests cover only about 2.5% of the Earth’s surface and less than 8% of the land surface (FAO, 2020), when considering all faunal and floral taxonomic groups, including invertebrates, fungi and other multicellular organisms, estimates range from 3 million to perhaps 50 million species exist in this ecosystem (Wilson, 1992).

Because vertebrates are more easily documented, scientists have more data on this group. Recent studies reveal that humid forests (a.k.a. “rainforests”) in the Tropics and the Neotropics have the highest biodiversity of all tropical forest types and terrestrial biomes (FAO & UNEP, 2020; Pillay et al., 2021), providing habitat for more than 90% and almost half of all tropical forest vertebrates respectively on Earth (Pillay et al., 2021) and 62% - 68% of all terrestrial vertebrate species on Earth, which is more than two times higher than in any other terrestrial biome (FAO & UNEP, 2020; Pillay et al., 2021). “Endemism” means a species is found nowhere else and Pillay et al. (2021) estimated that 17 - 29% of global terrestrial vertebrates are endemic to tropical forests, with endemism levels in amphibians being higher at 33% - 44% of global amphibian species.Furthermore, at least 20% of these endemic tropical forest vertebrate species are threatened with extinction (Pillay et al., 2021). In addition, 60% or more of all known plant species, including flowering plants, are also in tropical forests (FAO & UNEP, 2020; Newman, 2002).
Forests of all types around the world provide habitats for at least 5,000 amphibian species (80% of all known amphibians), approximately 7,500 bird species (75% of all known birds), and more than 3,700 mammal species (68% of all mammals) (FAO & UNEP, 2020). Moreover, approximately 42,000 species of insects, as many as 807 trees of 313 species, and 1,500 species of higher plants all can be found in just one hectare (2.47 acres) of tropical rainforest (Newman, 2002).

Importantly, each of these species along with an untold number of yet to be discovered across the taxonomic spectrum serve crucial roles in their ecosystem’s complex functions and services and those of the biosphere, providing countless benefits, products and other resources and services for all of us and our society on local regional and global levels. Consequently, scientists across disciplines conclude it is highly likely that humans would not be able to survive on Earth without forests. According to the United Nation’s Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), an example of a small fraction of the countless benefits forests provide are:
Provisioning Services (e.g., food, medicines, oxygen, clean water, fuel, timber, and other products, etc.);
Regulating Services (e.g., climate, water cycling, disease regulation, CO2 sequestration, pollination, erosion mitigation, etc.);
Supporting Services (e.g., soil formation, nutrient cycling, water filtration, etc.);
Cultural Services (e.g., recreation, tourism, and educational, aesthetic, spiritual, health, and cultural heritage values, etc.).
While the entire planet benefits from the essential services that forests provide (e.g., oxygen production, carbon sequestration, climate regulation, water and nutrient cycling, etc.), at least 1.6 billion people rely directly on forests for food, shelter, energy, medicines and income as well as the numerous other local and regional goods, services, and resources that forests provide (Pillay et al., 2021; United Nations, 2021). Putting aside wood products, nearly 6 billion people use non-wood forest products (a.k.a. “non-timber forest products” or NTFPs), including 2.77 billion rural people in the Global South (FAO, 2024). \

Forest products that are particularly beneficial for people and society include, but are not limited to: medicines, pollination, fibers, timber, cork, rubber, resins, glues, wood and other biomass, food (e.g., seeds/nuts, fruits, honey, mushrooms, sap, etc.), aromatic woods and plants, genetic resources, and fuel, to mention just a small fraction. A recent study by the University of Copenhagen (2024) estimated there are approximately 30,000 different non-timber forest products traded internationally with significant monetary value. The FAO estimates that annual income for producers from non-timber forest products is worth $88 billion USD. However, less than just 50 of the estimated 30,000 products are recorded in official statistics and when the added value of processing and other components in the value chain are included, the annual value of these NTFPs increases exponentially to trillions of dollars (University of Copenhagen, 2024) with millions more people and hundreds of thousands of businesses around the world that benefit directly from them. It is important to emphasize that these NTFPs and their valuations are in addition to the global economy of wood products worth $788.45 billion in 2023, which is expected to grow to $1.15 trillion in 2028 (Business Research, 2024)
Forests also provide physiological, emotional, spiritual, psychological, and non-extractive financial benefits through recreation, tourism, and spiritual retreat, etc. for tens of millions of people around the world. In many regions, the spiritual, health, emotional and psychological benefits are so important that some cultures have designated particular forests as “sacred”.

Medicines and their derivatives are an especially important forest resource for society. More than half of the world’s population (approx. 4 billion people in 2019) relies on natural medicines harvested directly from Nature, most of which are derived from native forests (IPBES, 2019). Approximately half of all prescription drugs are based on naturally occurring compounds from plants, with 25% coming from tropical rainforests, while at least 70% of cancer drugs are derived from Nature (WEF, 2020):
“As much as 50% of prescription drugs are based on a molecule that occurs naturally in a plant, while 70% of cancer drugs are natural or synthetic products inspired by nature. In the past 70 years, approximately 75% of approved anti-tumour pharmaceuticals have been non-synthetic, with 49% being wholly natural products or directly derived therefrom.
Species currently endangered by biodiversity loss include the South American cinchona tree, the source of the malaria drug quinine. The industry is particularly dependent on biodiverse tropical rainforests for new discoveries, with 25% of drugs used in modern medicine derived from rainforest plants.
As tropical forests face threats from felling and wildfires, pharmaceutical companies face losing a vast repository of undiscovered genetic materials that could lead to the next medical – and commercial – breakthrough. Only 15% of an estimated 300,000 plant species in the world have been evaluated to determine their pharmacological potential.” (WEF, 2020, page 18).

While many of these medicines come from nonwoody plants, there are also a variety of medicinal tree species that are particularly helpful for us. For example, aspirin was originally derived from the bark of willow trees; the cancer drug docetaxel was first derived from the needles of the European yew tree; and the cancer drug paclitaxel comes from the bark of the Pacific yew tree; among others. In addition, while forests provide medicines for us, they are also a preventative care system that protects us from emerging diseases and disasters.
For example, intact native forests and many species they harbor prevent zoonotic diseases from “spill-over” into our society. This includes many faunal species that prey on, consume and remove the carriers of those diseases from the ecosystem, but do not transfer them. While some people want to blame tropical forests for such diseases, the cause is ironically us. It is primarily when we disturb, cut and fragment forests that spill-over occurs, including via organisms that would otherwise not be anywhere near people.
Trees also produce beneficial chemicals in their tissues and as airborne chemicals (e.g., phytoncides) that are medicinal for us. These chemicals protect the trees from insect attacks and similar problems while also having antibacterial and antifungal properties that help ward off disease. When we breathe in these chemicals, our bodies respond by increasing the number and activity of white blood cells. These specific cells are commonly known as “natural killer cells” or “NK” cells that kill tumor- and virus-infected cells in the human body while also boosting our immune system. There are a number of community-, NGO- and private-led programs around the world that now take advantage of these biochemical health benefits where they promote and guide people in “forest bathing”. This is a practice that, in addition to improving a person’s physiological health via these chemical compounds from trees and plants, also helps reduce emotional stress and anxiety while relaxing the mind and body and creating physical and mental calm.

Forests also mitigate and control floods and erosion, clean our air, produce up to 28% of the oxygen on Earth, and store approximately 25 - 30% of the world’s carbon (second in the biosphere to the oceans), sequestering it in their tissues, leaves and soils. Forests also provide nutrients for and improve and maintain soil quality, play a crucial role in nutrient cycling and in filtering water and transpiring it into the atmosphere, which contributes significantly to local, regional and global precipitation, water cycling, and freshwater sources. Forests are also inextricably part of climate regulation, from the production and regulation of local micro- and macro-climates to the global biosphere.
Forests, Biodiversity and Climate Change
Forests, biodiversity, and climate change are interconnected through a variety of mechanistic links and feedbacks (IPBES-IPCC, 2021). They are reciprocally influential, mutually reinforcing, and the reduction or advancement of one inherently impacts the other(s). In other words, climate change exacerbates and can cause biodiversity loss while biodiversity loss can exacerbate and increase the negative effects of climate change (IPBES-IPCC, 2021). By the same token, sufficiently healthy, biodiverse and extensive native forests regulate and help mitigate climate change and its effects and vice-versa.

For example, according to World Resources Institute (WRI, 2023), the world’s forests store approximately 861 Gt (gigatons) of carbon, with 44% in soils (to one-meter depth), 42% in live biomass (above- and below-ground), 8% in dead wood, and 5% in litter. As a result, this is equivalent to almost a 100-years-worth of current annual fossil fuel emissions worldwide. While tropical forests store most of their carbon in vegetation (i.e., biomass) and boreal forests store significant amounts of carbon in their soils, it is estimated that approximately 50% of the world’s carbon that is stored in trees is in tropical forests. A 2021 collaboration between the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded:
“The absorption of more than 50% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions through photosynthesis and consequent carbon storage in biomass and organic material, as well as through CO2 dissolution in ocean water, already reduces global climate change naturally (but causes ocean acidification)…Avoiding and reversing the loss and degradation of carbon- and species-rich ecosystems on land and in the ocean is of highest importance for combined biodiversity protection and climate change mitigation actions with large adaptation co-benefits” (IPBES-IPCC, 2021, pages 14 and 17).
It was estimated in 2018 that native tropical forests can provide 23% of carbon sequestration for needed climate mitigation measures before 2030 (Gibbs et al., 2018). Based on recent research, this remains possible as of 2025. In addition, tropical and subtropical mangrove forests sequester four times more carbon per unit area than even rainforests. The sequestered carbon in all native forest types is also more secure and the rate of carbon capture is more consistent than in plantations, production (i.e., timber) forests, and agroforestry projects, etc. (Osuri et al., 2020). Some of the world’s forests are so intrinsically valuable that they are designated as World Heritage Sites and these forests absorb approximately 190 million tons of CO2 each year, which is equivalent to the annual CO2 emissions of the United Kingdom. Although it is estimated that peat swamps can store as much as twice the amount of carbon than forests, protected native forests maximize the biodiversity that serve each one of us every day and they also maximize and sequester more carbon (including in forest understory and soils) than other Nature-based solutions that we are able to implement today (Lewis et al., 2019; Waring et al., 2020). The latter is particularly the case for those involving commercial land uses like timber, oil palm and other plantations, crop agriculture, agroforestry of mixed trees with crops, etc. (Griscom et al., 2017). As Osuri et al. (2020, page 8) note:
“forests are superior to, and irreplaceable by, plantations as agents of terrestrial C sequestration…Policies that facilitate land transitions from natural forests (and other ecosystems) to plantations…have lasting detrimental impacts on terrestrial carbon sequestration, in addition to posing a significant threat to biodiversity”

Ultimately, protected native forests are crucial for mitigating biodiversity loss while providing substantial climate mitigation and adaptation co-benefits (IPBES-IPCC, 2021). At least 27% of the world’s net forest carbon sink between 2001-2019 was in protected areas (Harris et al., 2021), demonstrating strong support for forest protection. In essence, while our emissions must be significantly reduced in order for the world to abate climate change, pristine native forests can substantively mitigate the effects of carbon emissions, increase native biodiversity, reduce extinction risks, and provide the critical services, products, resources and other benefits to support all life on Earth, including for each one of us and our society.
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